Prior to Brazil's colonization, Portugal was the primary naval power courtesy of technology taken from the Arabs who had previously ruled the area. With this technology, they were able to establish island colonies and work their way down the coasts of Africa, establishing outposts as they went. Their intended destination was to be India, but whether by accident or on purpose, the Portuguese landed on the coasts of Brazil.
Once they hit land, they made contact with the native Tupi people, who remained in the Stone Age as semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers despite dominating much of the coastal regions. The Portuguese noted their beauty in particular as well as their nudity in the heat. Some minor trading was done, but the Portuguese found no gold and departed with disinterest; the first Portuguese visitors' legacy was only to name the island of Santa Cruz, and until Amerigo Vespucci there would be virtually no interest in Brazil. Vespucci named his landing Rio de Janeiro, or the River of January, and found interest in the Brazil Trees from which the country would come to derive its name. These trees exuded a type of red dye and would become the first main export of the region. The Tupi people began to form familial ties with the European visitors, most of whom were men and who ended up marrying indigenous and later African women. This intermingling was much encouraged given Portugal's small population and size, and forms the basis of Brazil's people. Still, Brazil remained relatively minor until the presence of the French on the coast and the rise of sugar production prompted the construction and establishment of the first permanent outposts; Brazil had begun to be important. In order to displace the French and remove them from Rio de Janeiro, the Portuguese allied with the Amerindians and then to found the town that would become the basis for the modern day city. Not all of the Europeans who emigrated to Brazil were so accepting of the native populations. The missionaries dismissed the natives as being "devils" for practices of nudity as well as for cannibalism that was sometimes practiced. The Jesuits strove to impose the Christian model on the natives, and became very powerful in doing so, while the native populations were decimated by Old World diseases to which they had no immunity. The settlers were not pleased with the Jesuit-Native interactions, and the Portuguese even made efforts to stop or limit slavery of the natives repeatedly -- which reveals their questionable rates of success. The Jesuits had the most success and the most powerful presence in the settlement of Sao Paulo, the first inland settlement of any real significance. The region was poorer than the coast, lacking in the growing sugar crops, and the mamalucos, kids of mixed heritage, adopted many Tupi farming techniques and tools. They also went on bandieras, expeditions that sought autonomous natives for slave-taking and prospected for gold. The practice rapidly became a way of life. Also during this century, some of the mixed peoples from Sao Paulo migrated north into the sertaos and resettled as cattle rangers, and between these two groups and the Jesuits themselves, Brazil's borders stretched much farther west and southwest than ever. The other hotspot of missionary activity would be found to the north where the French had been expelled and the city of Belem had been founded near the mouth of the Amazon river. However, the breadth and depth of the power they had gathered throughout the colony would prove to be their undoing. King Jose I expelled the Jesuits for their influence, seeing them as a sort of state within the state of his "most important colony." It was not so surprising a claim -- the Jesuits had come to control many large assets and lands and did not heed the treaties or governing bodies except as it suited them, posing a danger to the rule of law in the colony. Despite the Jesuit influence and the rampant disease that decimated their populations, the Tupi formed the majority of the Brazilian cultural basis, distinct from the way the Spanish and English stifled and dominated the native cultures in their colonies. With the boom of the sugar industry and the skyrocketing demand, slavery came to thrive in Brazil. Plantations were modeled on those of the Atlantic islands that utilized African slaves as the main labor force, and the crops of sugarcane thrived in the North-East areas around Pernambuco and Bahia. From the 1570's to 1670's, Brazil was the world's largest exporter of sugar due to the unrivaled complexity of its process: a combination of farming and manufacturing in the hell like sugar mills. With this came great populations of enslaved Africans who would have an even more significant effect on Brazilian culture than the Tupi. Trans-Atlantic travel between Brazil and Africa took significantly less time than to most other colonies, somewhere around one month, and gave them a big advantage in the trade, allowing sugar to very rapidly become the dominant economic activity for the planters who lived on their estates. Not only this, but the Portuguese were the primary traders in slaves due to their forts along the African coast, able to control the movement of the taken people to the various colonies. Large-scale slave import began early in the 17th century as sugar profits rose, initially drawing from West African peoples, and later from the Bantu peoples and those of the Kongo. Brazil would import more slaves than any other country, and for a longer period of time. One tenth of these would die in passage. Low prices drove demands to new heights, and the difficulty of attracting free labor from non-slave sources stemmed from the colony's relative lack of attractions paired with the European fear of the dense, wild, and alien tropical landscapes. Not least of their fears and concerns were the ants. Huge colonies would kill crops left and right, giving rise to a cycle of slash-burn-use-move farming, as the ants would take over within a couple of years. Between the ants and the poor soils of the cleared rainforest, the cleared fields had little value. At this time, Portugal did nothing to interfere or limit the slavery, allowing it to run almost wholly unchecked. The practice established itself deeply. Preachers claimed that slavery was closest to Christ's life and promised heaven to the slaves, but were not wholly without reason, as the same was not said for their masters and those masters who were excessively cruel were chastened by the same token. The goal was not to abolish the practice but rather to limit mistreatment of the slaves, if such a contradiction were possible, and to portray slavery in Brazil as supposedly kinder than other parts of the Americas. Like elsewhere in the Americas, however, crimes against slaves were met with legal impunity and the idea of a kinder slavery was a myth. Rebellions on every scale were common and made the threats of killing a master or escaping legitimate, and Afro-Brazilians had their own leaders still, frequently ex-kings or chiefs. There are some differences between Brazilian slavery and the slave trade we are more familiar with that occurred in what would become the United States, however. Race mixing was more common; mulatos were often classed as white and both free blacks and mulatos owned slaves. Manumission was relatively common, and artisan workers and supervisors could be found among the slave population in larger proportions and in relevant positions rather than being used solely as labor. In 1808, 28% of the population were claimed as white, 28% as free blacks, 6% indians, and 38% slaves. The result was that African and Brazilian cultures became very blended, particularly visible in the religious syncretism that was tolerated between the Catholic and various African faiths. Although the country was populated, there were no naturalistic visual records of the country until the period following the heirless death of the Portuguese king that prompted the Dutch to send military expeditions to the northeast corner in an attempt to take the territory. Once established, the Dutch held that corner for approximately 25 years, but their advanced building style and interest in visual records would leave their mark in the language with phrases such as 'the work of a Dutchman' to denote quality and an archive of numerous paintings of flora, fauna, and the people that provided records of far greater use than the more traditional woodcuts. The Portuguese's fight to expel the Dutch from Brazil incited a restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain under the new royal family -- but much of the resistance was organized at a local level and bolstered the beginnings of a national spirit. Political ties between Portugal and Britain allowed the area to remain unchallenged for a further 150 years under the eye of the Royal Navy. Brazil became a hotspot again with the discovery of gold in alluvial streams along the mountains of Minas Gerais, followed by discoveries of diamonds and emeralds, and more gold in Bahia, Mato Grosso. It prompted mass migrations of Portuguese to Brazil and bred conflict between the paulistas and the new arrivals over mining rights, and underneath it all were the unaffiliated wildcat miners who became a big part of Brazilian life and a major contributor to environmental degradation. Mining areas became melting pots and the interior of the country began to slowly become more settled by both the mining and cattle industries, with the various areas loosely tied together by mule trains. Free blacks came to outnumber slaves in Minas Gerais by the 19th century and baroque building had erupted in churches and in religious artworks that centered the nationalism firmly in Minas Gerais despite the movement of the capital from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. Of course, in time crops would replace fading gold resources as the driving factor in the region. Over the years, millions of immigrants from Europe, Eastern Europe, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, and Syria would settle in Brazil, although the states only became unified legally as Brazil in 1774.
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Brazil’s culture and history in intimately shaped by its geography. Situated mostly within the tropics, the country can be roughly broken into three river basins: the Amazon, the Parana, and the Sao Francisco. The Amazon Rainforest itself covers about half of the country, which lacks any Alpine environments but boasts vast cerrados, rolling savannahs that stretch from Mato Grosso and Piaui to Maranhao. Because of this, the majority of the population remains concentrated along the coastal regions.
Politically, Brazil is divided into five large regions: South, South-East, North-East, North, and Center-West. Each is distinct from the others in both economy and politics and displays a different racial profile built up from the country’s history of immigration. The South has primarily family farming and has experienced a high degree of European migrations. It comprises only 7% of the national territory, and yet is the second-wealthiest with regard to income per head. It’s composed of the states Parana and Rio Grande Do Sul, the latter of which is regarded as a frontier state and whose population can be referred to as gauchos. The South-East, by contrast, is located in the country’s heartland and is an economic powerhouse with over 77 million people and including two of Brazil’s largest cities: Rio de Janeiro, whose people are called cariocas, and Sao Paulo. It’s a highly cosmopolitan region and combines the natural beauty of the countryside with cityscapes of “squalid poverty.” Rio de Janeiro was the capital until 1960, at which point it was moved to Brasilia; Rio is now the headquarters of the country’s oil industry. Sao Paulo became one of the fastest growing cities in the world during the 20th century due to coffee and industrialization and emerged as Brazil’s economic and business capital. The cariocas of Rio have a reputation of being better at play than at work, while Sao Paulo is all business -- in fact, the state of the same name is ⅓ of Brazil’s GDP, alone boasting a larger economy than Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay combined. The area is powered by upstate hinterlands, the core of its agricultural business. Minas Gerais is diverse, and is something of an extension of Rio with powerful political traditions, mixing “liberal rebellion and agrarian conservatism.” The North-East, however, is the poorest region both in the current day and historically. Sugar and Cotton are the main coastal crops and the arid sertao inland is supported by cattle and subsistence farming. Income per head is only ⅔ the national average, and its constituent states of Bahia, Pernambuco, and Ceara have experienced fluctuating political fortunes, and while Pernambuco may be on the rise, the region as a whole remains struggling. The Center-West is notable for its currently fast-growing economy and population both and is situated on the cerrado. It is a major agricultural frontier whose rise began in the 1970’s and is based on the growth and exportation of sugar, cotton, and soy cash crops to both other parts of Brazil itself and the rest of the world. The Northern region covers ⅖ of the country’s total area. Although it is nearly as poor as the North-East, it is growing in population as quickly as the Center-West, which I believe appears to be a recipe for future conflict. It comprises what is known as the “legal Amazon,” covering approximately 60% of the country. The largest cities in the area are Manaus, which is situated in the heart of the forest and primarily assembles electronic equipment, and Belem, a port city. Culturally, Brazil is based overall on five major themes despite the vibrant diversity of its people. These are Football, Carnival, Religion, Telenovela, and Family. Each is of equal importance and contributes to the national character. Football, or soccer in America, is sometimes called ‘the beautiful game’ and is often regarded as a sort of art; they are some of the best players of the game in the world and regard winning almost as a right. Although it was brought to the country in 1894 by a Scot by the name of Charles Miller, it has become a huge part of the national identity and has served to aid in the establishment of personal social identities based on which teams a person supports and has given Brazil a great deal of confidence in their country on a global scale. Major events are greeted by near-shutdowns of major cities, and Reid remarks that “of all Brazil’s many religions, football is one of the strongest.” The Carnival is another idea that was brought to Brazil by outsiders -- in this case with roots in Italian style carnivals carried overseas by the Portuguese in the Napoleonic era wars, and then merged with black Brazilian neighborhood celebrations in the 19th century to form something unique. Months are spent preparing for the festivals, and Samba schools have become important institutions in their communities for the services they provide beyond just education in the music of the carnival. DaMatta notes that the carnival allows “the free movement of people in a social space that the everyday world makes impossible with hierarchal repression and prejudices.” Similarly, it shares with football the idea that they each are governed by strict rules that are applied to each individual equally, no matter their station, and thus create a meeting point for many different cultures and social classes. It is in part from the tradition of carnival that Brazil gains its reputation of promiscuity, but it is more accurate to say that they are relaxed about nudity and sex. The attitude is rooted in the cultures of the country’s founding peoples -- the American Indians, Portuguese, and Africans -- as well as in simple practicality given the sheer heat of the local climate. They are also sexually tolerant on the whole, although there has recently been a rise in the rate of homophobic killings. What is emphasized, however, is physical beauty and appearance; this is perhaps unsurprising in a culture where the beach plays a central role in daily life. They spend more of their income on beauty products than anywhere else in the world and are the second largest market for such items after the U.S.. Brazil has also descended plastic surgery from a luxury to a much more everyday commodity, even providing in some cases charity plastic surgeons as a “right.” Here again, Brazil is second only to the United States. As a counterpoint to this attitude stands the powerful religious morality that pervades the country. Brazilians can be very conservative at times -- plays have been banned from performance for dealing with topics like abortion, incest, and adultery, and school dress codes are taken very seriously, especially for young women. They were, until recently being overtaken by China, the world’s largest producer of bibles and frequently conclude a conversation with “go with God.” Evangelicals have made advances and met with success among the poor black communities as a source of structure for their lives, but the country remains predominantly Roman Catholic: the largest Roman Catholic country in the world with 65% of the population in 2010. Evangelical groups have been working to elect members to congress and have been promoting more American-style conservatism, to which Catholics have responded with charismatic pop-culture plays. Another Brazilian ‘religion’ is that of the telenovela, or soap opera. These tv shows draw vast audiences with a 50% share, with TV ad spending at 64%, the highest in the world. They exert great influence on the country’s culture and often act as a sort of public-opinion-meter by reflecting the major sociopolitical topics of the time. Although they do not often push the envelope, they still form social trends and shape the country’s people, especially outside of cities where much of the connections to other parts of the nation come from these glimpses and renditions of changing cultural themes. Finally, family: the strongest and oldest pillar of Brazilian society. Lack of colonial power from Portugal allowed this to form as a distinct and pervasive social structure and societal basis. Brazilian families are not, however, restricted solely to blood relatives and biological relations but are flexible enough to include in-laws and step-family members, etc. Reid declares that “Brazilian national identity is founded on loyalty to the family,” and it dictates not only personal life but also permeates state affairs and replaces things like the American-style revolutionary mindset. Brazil has achieved independence and democracy both without national revolution, a very distinct difference from the way the United States developed. As a function of the familial mindset, the concept of being socially distant and reserved is both uncomfortable and undesirable and in some cases, suspicious. Brazilians are very tactile, friendly people outwardly and often prefer to dispense with certain formalities, best exemplified in their treatment of names. Brazilian names are extraordinarily long, but are almost always shortened to a single part and often include a diminutive. Despite this, they can still be a cynical people and on the whole lack personal trust. In combination, the result is that work recruitment is nepotistic and extremely dependent on personal networking. They keep a distinct separation between the stability of the home and the ‘struggle’ of the street. Brazilians view themselves as being peaceful, and have far fewer inter-personal confrontations than the US when it comes to business affairs, yet their society is underpinned by a current of violence. Nepotism in business and state has led to miles and miles of bureaucratic restrictive lines that are often only circumvented through those same family connections or through a broad category of other “fixes” collectively known as o jeito -- a practice of almost-bribes and possibly-favors and other less than straightforward compromises. This is a product of their hierarchal society and is “inimical to the rule of law,” reflecting the country’s difficulty in establishing social equality. Brazilians place very great value on friendships and family, and are notable for expressions both of enthusiasm for life and of sorrow for impermanence of it. It is through this lens that the country and its regions should be viewed and through this lens that the overarching themes of Brazilian culture are seen. Brazil is not Brazil if any of these ‘religions’ are removed from it, but not all are necessarily conducive to forward progress and the rule of law. Brazil is a country of potentials. It has a multitude of strengths, but has had as many obstacles and weaknesses impeding its rise as a global power both politically and economically. Today, the country is on the rise as part of the BRIC countries -- Brazil, Russia, India, and China. Economists have predicted a shift in economic power to these nations and away from the United States and European countries in the near future. Of these countries, Brazil has perhaps the greatest potential, but the question remains whether it can break out of the oft-repeated idea of "hope followed by disappointment" that has characterized its rise.
Brazil boasts huge pools of natural resources, including both land and oil, and is the 5th largest country in the world. It has a history of growing economic reforms that promise to strengthen and stabilize it as a power, and many big businesses are forming and catching the eye of entrepreneurs and economists. From 1930-1980, the nation experienced rapid growth and produced enough momentum even after this period to be able to shake off the 2008 recession very quickly. In fact, from 2002-2009, 30 million Brazilians escaped poverty under Lula and the rise of a new middle class that has caused some to draw comparisons between the South American country and the United States. It is the world's 4th most populous nation and boasts the 7th largest economy, tied with Great Britain, is the 3rd largest food exporter and is expected to displace the U.S. as the biggest by 2025, and is self-sufficient in oil with some of the biggest oil strikes of the 21st century occurring in Brazilian waters. Beyond that, it is the world leader in plant based fuels. It's also the world leader in one of the most important natural resources: fresh water. Brazil is richer in fresh water per head than any other country, and with climate change and droughts in breadbaskets around the world, this may become an important asset in the future. It includes 70% of the Amazon in its territory, making it a key player in international debates about carbon emissions and climate change, but alongside this it also claims the position of 6th largest manufacturing power. Cardoso and Lula's economic reforms helped Brazil's economy grow rapidly with low inflation, enabling Brazilian companies to become giants in their industries. Unfortunately, not everything is on the up-and-up in Brazil. For the most part, Brazilian manufacturers are not equipped nor able to be competitive in the market and services remain unproductive. Between poor education standards and an excess of both taxes and beaurocratic blocks, little infrastructure investment, inability to provide electricity more widely, and "inequalities of income and power," stumbling blocks on the road to progress are less like speed bumps and more like brick walls. Crime and brutal policing is common in the favelas -- poor neighborhoods -- and especially among the young black people, where the state still struggles to enforce a rule of law. The great wealth granted by oil stands to worsen the situation without a firm hand and a strong state to guide it, and inflation has remained an issue of some serious potential for many years that Brazilian leaders are forced to grapple with alongside high interest rates. As growth has slowed, Brazil has once again begun to draw skeptical looks from outside as some Brazilian economists push for new rounds of economic reform. Street protests have begun to erupt "on a scale not seen for a generation" out of frustration with the ruling class and the failure of that class and the state to adequately provide for public services, shocking the politicians. However, despite this, the author, Reid, remains hopeful. He believes that processes of reforms are underway and that it compares favorably to the United States's own development. In his words, Brazilians "have a strong sense of exceptionalism. They have long been aware of their country's potential, and frustrated and unnerved by its failure to realize it." However, only time will tell whether they can regain the growth they had captured half a century ago and whether they will become competitive enough to better compete on a global scale. |
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